‘Nyai’ Ontosoroh
The most famous Nyai for the last 40 years was named Ontosoroh. She is a fictional character in the novel Bumi Manusia (The Earth of Mankind, 1980) by Pramoedya Ananta Toer.
A cut from the film "Bumi Manusia" depicting the role of Nyai Ontosoroh.
Nyai were local women who were taken as mistresses by European men during the Dutch East Indies era, before the country was named Indonesia. Some were later legally married, but many were not. Their descendants were called “Indo” (half Indonesian, half Dutch).
Not all Indos were white or had blonde hair. Not all spoke Dutch. Not all of them had the status of "European" citizens, except those officially recognized by their fathers. Not all of them ever set foot in the Netherlands.
The most famous Nyai for the last 40 years was named Ontosoroh. She is a fictional character in the novel Bumi Manusia (The Earth of Mankind, 1980) by Pramoedya Ananta Toer. She is an idol figure for Minke, the main character of the novel. Outside of the novel, Ontosoroh is famous as a source of inspiration for theater performances, songwriting and thesis studies.
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Before becoming a mistress/concubine, Ontosoroh was named Sanikem. To advance his career, her father sold Sanikem at the age of 14 to Herman Mellema for 25 gulden. Ontosoroh learned Dutch until she was proficient. Such an ability, which was very rare at that time, was also mastered by RA Kartini.
Nyai Ontosoroh lived a more independent life than RA Kartini. She managed a large company owned by Mellema. Armed with European modernity, she challenged not only Javanese priyayi culture in writing, but also European patriarchy in action.
Even though she was taken as a mistress by Mellema, she was strong enough to resist when he acted badly.
Both with the theme of the Indonesian independence revolution.
The figure of Nyai Ontosoroh appeared in my mind for days at the beginning of 2022. Because of the controversy about mass violence in Indonesia in 1945-1947 which was later called "Bersiap". The controversy was related to two events in the Netherlands, namely the opening of exhibitions and academic research. Both with the theme of the Indonesian independence revolution.
Bersiap (get prepared) is an explosion of widespread violence during the absence of state authority in the transition period. Japan lost World War II in 1945. The Netherlands as the previous ruler was not ready to replace Japan again. The independence of the Republic of Indonesia was quickly proclaimed in front of a microphone. However, apart from this official ceremony, the government was not ready to take action.
One of the cutscenes in the film "Bumi Manusia" which depicts the oppression of the priyai in the Dutch era.
Bersiap was only part of a long story of colonial violence and decolonization of this country. The difference was, Bersiap disappeared from the official historical discourse in Indonesia and in the Netherlands for more than half a century. Governments in both countries have equally avoided the topic and responsibility for the events. The national histories of both countries have focused on the heroism of their own nation's fighters against the evils of other nations.
The Netherlands is starting to change. Last February, Dutch Prime Minister Mark Rutte apologized to Indonesia for the violence by Dutch soldiers after the proclamation of independence. Two years earlier, Dutch King Willem-Alexander had also apologized. Maybe that was not enough for the victims. However, it was the beginning of a historic change.
In a controversy earlier this year, Bersiap was understood by some in a narrow sense, namely as the violence of "our" fighters against the Dutch colonialists. It was justified on the pretext of being a spontaneous reaction of the people to the Dutch's intention to re-colonize. In fact, the researchers showed how diverse the perpetrators, victims and reasons for the violence were at that time.
Cuts from the film "Nyai" produced in 2016.
Not all of the perpetrators were freedom fighters. Not a few of them were street thugs. Others just joined in. Some looted without political intent or because of racial vendetta. The main victims were not the Dutch colonial rulers whom the Japanese had defeated three years earlier.
Some of the victims were indigenous officials who were considered to have been close to the Dutch. However, most of the victims were Indo, Ambon, Manado and Chinese ethnic-minority civilians, including women, children and the elderly who knew nothing about politics.
Many of us are still accustomed to discussing colonialism within the framework of an absolute dichotomy: us/them, Indonesia/the Netherlands, right/wrong. Many also reject a view that combines both. Moreover, any view that does not take one of the two categories is also denied.
Bringing up the Bersiap issue was considered a Dutch ploy to vilify Indonesia, while ignoring their colonialism.
So, when the Bersiap controversy emerged at the beginning of the year, not a few thought that it was a Dutch problem. Not Indonesia's business. Bringing up the Bersiap issue was considered a Dutch ploy to vilify Indonesia, while ignoring their colonialism.
In fact, before the controversy earlier this year, many Dutch citizens did not know about Bersiap. Neither did Indonesians. Because of the debate, recently more young people in both countries came to learn of it for the first time. In both countries, Bersiap is discussed by some of the survivors' families, quite apart from researchers.
What does this have to do with Nyai Ontosoroh? Thousands of Bersiap victims were people like Nyai Ontosoroh, her father, her husband, their children, and other people around her. They are considered Dutch, Indo, or natives close to the Netherlands. Hundreds of thousands of others were displaced as refugees.
Cuts from the film "Nyai" produced in 2016.
Bumi Manusia is a postcolonial critique. It goes beyond the colonial/anticolonial dichotomy without denying that it can be completely free from these elements. It talked about the birth of Indonesia as a “gado-gado” (mixed) nation. Just like being Indo or Peranakan. This is where the “our/them dichotomy” falls apart.
Indonesia is narrated in Bumi Manusia as the fruit of clashes and, at the same time, intimacy between colonial and anti-colonial views. Similar to the personality of many characters in the novel, including Ontosoroh. She is not an innocent native girl named Sanikem. Not a real Dutch lady either.
Ontosoroh is not biologically Indo like her children. However, she is an Indo figure in her heart, speech and actions. She encouraged Minke to write in Malay, not Javanese or Dutch.
Also, it is a criticism of ethno-nationalism and the anti-Western militancy of indigenous people that glorifies local feudalism.
Bumi Manusia is a post-colonial critique of the colonial mentality that was rampant when the novel was first published during the New Order era. Also, it is a criticism of ethno-nationalism and the anti-Western militancy of indigenous people that glorifies local feudalism.
When Bumi Manusia was filmed (2019), the post-colonial spirit in the novel faded. As a commodity, commercial films are packaged according to market tastes, namely ethno-nationalism framed by the colonial/anti-colonial dichotomy. So, before the show at the cinema building, the audience was asked to stand up and sing "Indonesia Raya".
It is understandable that many are not ready to accept Bersiap as part of national history.
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Ariel-Heryanto
ARIEL HERYANTO, Profesor emeritus at Monash University, Australia
(This article was translated by Kurniawan Siswo)
